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analysis software

J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:

Using some software tool, PowerBasic or one of the math things, define
an array of 4096 floats. Load the array with random numbers in the
range -1 to +1.

Now make a pass through all entries, applying a weighting function
such as to change the probability distribution from flat to nearly
Gaussian, with some reasonable crest factor. (I'm not sure this step
is necessary.)

The points now look like hell, as they have no adjacent-point
correlation; they need to be lowpass filtered.

Filter the points as follows: look at the data as an input array
arranged as a ring instead of a linear vector. Create an null output
array. Now we want to lowpass filter the input ring array into the
output array seamlessly. Two ideas:

1. Define a lowpass response as a FIR filter, determine its
coefficients, and walk that filter (envision it as a arc-section of a
circle) around the input ring, one step at a time. At each step, do
the multiply-accumulate (convolution) thing and poke the resulting
value into the output array.

2. Simulate a single-pole lowpass filter as out = out + (in-out)/K.
"Connect" it to the input data ring, walk it around one loop to
"charge it up", then walk around another loop, with the "out" value
now loading the output loop.

Lastly, I can normalise the output array to 1 volt RMS, remove any
residual DC component, and quantize to 16 bits.


So I can code this without much trouble, and come up with some
candidate algorithms and coefficients. I can export the data as a csv
or whatever. What I need is a nice, easy-to-drive frequency analysis
program, a fun Windows FFT utility. Any suggestions?

I'm thinking also that my "noise" spectrum will be a bunch of lines,
not continuous, because my waveform is actually periodic. So we might
somewhat randomize the DDS input frequency value to smear the lines in
the frequency domain, jittering the waveform in the time domain. The
effects of this needs to be analyzed, too, so the datasets may get
large. Worst case, we could do the experiment all in hardware and use
a real (classic, sweeping) spectrum analyzer.

Or maybe we need another algorithm for digitally generating
bandlimited Gaussian noise. This one does fit our existing ARB
architecture with minimal damage... we have a pipelined ARB
architecture that we'd rather not trash much.

Ideas?

John
 
T

Tim Wescott

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:

Using some software tool, PowerBasic or one of the math things, define
an array of 4096 floats. Load the array with random numbers in the
range -1 to +1.

Now make a pass through all entries, applying a weighting function
such as to change the probability distribution from flat to nearly
Gaussian, with some reasonable crest factor. (I'm not sure this step
is necessary.)

The points now look like hell, as they have no adjacent-point
correlation; they need to be lowpass filtered.

Filter the points as follows: look at the data as an input array
arranged as a ring instead of a linear vector. Create an null output
array. Now we want to lowpass filter the input ring array into the
output array seamlessly. Two ideas:

1. Define a lowpass response as a FIR filter, determine its
coefficients, and walk that filter (envision it as a arc-section of a
circle) around the input ring, one step at a time. At each step, do
the multiply-accumulate (convolution) thing and poke the resulting
value into the output array.

2. Simulate a single-pole lowpass filter as out = out + (in-out)/K.
"Connect" it to the input data ring, walk it around one loop to
"charge it up", then walk around another loop, with the "out" value
now loading the output loop.

Lastly, I can normalise the output array to 1 volt RMS, remove any
residual DC component, and quantize to 16 bits.


So I can code this without much trouble, and come up with some
candidate algorithms and coefficients. I can export the data as a csv
or whatever. What I need is a nice, easy-to-drive frequency analysis
program, a fun Windows FFT utility. Any suggestions?

I'm thinking also that my "noise" spectrum will be a bunch of lines,
not continuous, because my waveform is actually periodic. So we might
somewhat randomize the DDS input frequency value to smear the lines in
the frequency domain, jittering the waveform in the time domain. The
effects of this needs to be analyzed, too, so the datasets may get
large. Worst case, we could do the experiment all in hardware and use
a real (classic, sweeping) spectrum analyzer.

Or maybe we need another algorithm for digitally generating
bandlimited Gaussian noise. This one does fit our existing ARB
architecture with minimal damage... we have a pipelined ARB
architecture that we'd rather not trash much.

Ideas?

John
The process that you suggest in points 1 and 2 don't require an FFT, yet
an FFT would be just the thing to use.

The FFT math is appropriate for a periodic signal, so if you use
4096-point set of completely random data, do an FFT, band limit it by
multiplying it point-by-point with your filter envelope, then do an
IFFT, you'll get perfectly bandlimited but periodic data.

If you're clever you can eliminate the initial FFT step by generating a
2048-point set of complex numbers then reflecting it with 2048 complex
conjugates (except for point 1 and point 2049, which will be all real).
Then your inverse transform will be real, within the precision of your
FFT algorithm.

You can do all of this with Scilab (http://www.scilab.org). It's a
general-purpose math package like MatLab. Unlike MatLab it's free. The
user interface is obscure, and the help is dismal, but it's a
tremendously powerful package

--

Tim Wescott
Wescott Design Services
http://www.wescottdesign.com

Posting from Google? See http://cfaj.freeshell.org/google/

Do you need to implement control loops in software?
"Applied Control Theory for Embedded Systems" gives you just what it says.
See details at http://www.wescottdesign.com/actfes/actfes.html
 
F

Fred Bloggs

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:

[...snip...]

No one is all that concerned with your "thinking." The de facto standard
for doing this sort of thing for the past 21 years is described in
Gaussian White-Noise Generation for Digital Signal Synthesis,
Kafadar,.K, IEEE Trans. Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-35, No.
4., Dec. 1986, 492-495. This paper is referenced all over the place and
the implementation breaks down into about a six line MathCad program to
produce the sample set.
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:

[...snip...]

No one is all that concerned with your "thinking."

I am. My co-workers and employees are. My customers are. Sometimes my
wife and my kids are. The cats apparently aren't.

The de facto standard
for doing this sort of thing for the past 21 years is described in
Gaussian White-Noise Generation for Digital Signal Synthesis,
Kafadar,.K, IEEE Trans. Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-35, No.
4., Dec. 1986, 492-495. This paper is referenced all over the place and
the implementation breaks down into about a six line MathCad program to
produce the sample set.

What't the point of having an engineering discussion group if all the
responses are "go research the IEEE literature."?

Not being an IEEE member, I don't have access to that paper. Someone,
like you, could be kind and email me a copy. However references to it
suggest it doesn't address the details of my problem. Just generating
a series of bandlimited gaussian signal samples, on a pc, is trivial.

But it looks as if doing it the easy way, loading a bandlimited
Gaussian noise waveform into the 4K point arb waveform table, must
necessarily make bad noise. The spectrum will have discrete lines at
multiples of Fclk/Table_len, which is nasty, and the max/min noise
range will be badly limited. It will also be visually periodic, not
too impressive. Dithering the DDS clock helps a little but has
problems of its own.

So we'll probably use a tapped long-pattern pseudorandom shift
register (64 or 96 bits maybe) and post-scramble to zap bit
crosscorrelations; XOR gates are free. That gives us random 16-bit
numbers with flat probability distribution. If we digitally lowpass
filter that, we'll get bandlimited Gaussian noise. If we clock that
whole system from the DDS synthesizer, we can set the noise bandwidth
3db point anywhere we like it, mHz to MHz, without affecting RMS
amplitude, which is pretty cool.

Our problem now is to squeeze 8 such noise generators into a Spartan3
FPGA, most of whose multipliers have already been used in the DDS and
modulators. The filters look like the tricky part, but I have an Evil
Scheme for them.

John
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
Oh, ProStat, by Poly Software Int'l, is a nice, easy to drive graphing
program that has lots of math operations... FFT, correlations, curve
fits, density functions, lots of nice engineering stuff. It seems to
be limited to 128K points, not the best for some signal processing
stuff. A modern PC can do a million point FFT in a reasonable time.

John
 
M

Mike Monett

Jan 1, 1970
0
John Larkin said:
So we'll probably use a tapped long-pattern pseudorandom shift
register (64 or 96 bits maybe) and post-scramble to zap bit
crosscorrelations; XOR gates are free. That gives us random 16-bit
numbers with flat probability distribution. If we digitally lowpass
filter that, we'll get bandlimited Gaussian noise. If we clock that
whole system from the DDS synthesizer, we can set the noise bandwidth
3db point anywhere we like it, mHz to MHz, without affecting RMS
amplitude, which is pretty cool.

You can't change a flat probability distribution into a Gaussian by low
pass filtering.

Filtering has no effect on the probability distibution.

Regards,

Mike Monett
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
You can't change a flat probability distribution into a Gaussian by low
pass filtering.

Filtering has no effect on the probability distibution.

Regards,

Mike Monett

AoE, p 655, first line on the 2nd column. You might also google
"central limit theorem."

Are you yet another nym for MassiveProng?

John
 
M

Mike Monett

Jan 1, 1970
0
John Larkin said:
AoE, p 655, first line on the 2nd column. You might also google
"central limit theorem."
Are you yet another nym for MassiveProng?

Don't be stupid, John.

The Central Limit Theorem doesn't talk about the frequency spectrum of
noise, only about the probability distribution.

I don't have AoE, John. Please post the relevant section, or some other web
url.

Regards,

Mike Monett
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
Don't be stupid, John.

The Central Limit Theorem doesn't talk about the frequency spectrum of
noise, only about the probability distribution.

I don't have AoE, John. Please post the relevant section, or some other web
url.

Regards,

Mike Monett

You don't need a book and you don't need a link; you only have to
think for about 15 seconds.

John
 
M

Marra

Jan 1, 1970
0
You don't need a book and you don't need a link; you only have to
think for about 15 seconds.

John

There is always a bit of degree snobbery around.

Thinking is pretty good and a bit of research.
Dont take anything for granted.
 
F

Fred Bloggs

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
John said:
I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:

[...snip...]

No one is all that concerned with your "thinking."


I am. My co-workers and employees are. My customers are. Sometimes my
wife and my kids are. The cats apparently aren't.


The de facto standard
for doing this sort of thing for the past 21 years is described in
Gaussian White-Noise Generation for Digital Signal Synthesis,
Kafadar,.K, IEEE Trans. Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-35, No.
4., Dec. 1986, 492-495. This paper is referenced all over the place and
the implementation breaks down into about a six line MathCad program to
produce the sample set.


What't the point of having an engineering discussion group if all the
responses are "go research the IEEE literature."?

Not being an IEEE member, I don't have access to that paper. Someone,
like you, could be kind and email me a copy. However references to it
suggest it doesn't address the details of my problem. Just generating
a series of bandlimited gaussian signal samples, on a pc, is trivial.

But it looks as if doing it the easy way, loading a bandlimited
Gaussian noise waveform into the 4K point arb waveform table, must
necessarily make bad noise. The spectrum will have discrete lines at
multiples of Fclk/Table_len, which is nasty, and the max/min noise
range will be badly limited. It will also be visually periodic, not
too impressive. Dithering the DDS clock helps a little but has
problems of its own.

So we'll probably use a tapped long-pattern pseudorandom shift
register (64 or 96 bits maybe) and post-scramble to zap bit
crosscorrelations; XOR gates are free. That gives us random 16-bit
numbers with flat probability distribution. If we digitally lowpass
filter that, we'll get bandlimited Gaussian noise. If we clock that
whole system from the DDS synthesizer, we can set the noise bandwidth
3db point anywhere we like it, mHz to MHz, without affecting RMS
amplitude, which is pretty cool.

Our problem now is to squeeze 8 such noise generators into a Spartan3
FPGA, most of whose multipliers have already been used in the DDS and
modulators. The filters look like the tricky part, but I have an Evil
Scheme for them.

John

Sounds like a work around infringement of US6732128...
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
John Larkin wrote:

I have a little problem and could use some FFT-type analysis software.

We want to digitally generate programmable-bandwidth,
lowpass/bandlimited Gaussian noise, at constant amplitude. What we
have is a 4096-point, 16-bit wide RAM feeding a DAC, clocked by a DDS
based address generator (phase accumulator) running at 128 MHz.

What I'd like to do is load the ram with a snippet of a bandlimited
gaussian noise pattern corresponding to, say, 1 volt RMS at the dac
output. I can generate the 4096 data points on a PC, and copy the data
into my embedded assembly language program, which can in turn load the
noise pattern into the ram when my user decides he wants noise on one
channel (it will also do standard waveforms and arb.) The DDS phase
accumulate value "plays" the waveform at a variable rate, setting the
noise bandwidth.

Since the waveform will be played continuously, I don't want a "seam"
at the transition from ram address 4095 to 0. It's sort of like a
360-degree panoramic photograph with no seam anywhere.

My thinking is this:


[...snip...]

No one is all that concerned with your "thinking."


I am. My co-workers and employees are. My customers are. Sometimes my
wife and my kids are. The cats apparently aren't.


The de facto standard
for doing this sort of thing for the past 21 years is described in
Gaussian White-Noise Generation for Digital Signal Synthesis,
Kafadar,.K, IEEE Trans. Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. IM-35, No.
4., Dec. 1986, 492-495. This paper is referenced all over the place and
the implementation breaks down into about a six line MathCad program to
produce the sample set.


What't the point of having an engineering discussion group if all the
responses are "go research the IEEE literature."?

Not being an IEEE member, I don't have access to that paper. Someone,
like you, could be kind and email me a copy. However references to it
suggest it doesn't address the details of my problem. Just generating
a series of bandlimited gaussian signal samples, on a pc, is trivial.

But it looks as if doing it the easy way, loading a bandlimited
Gaussian noise waveform into the 4K point arb waveform table, must
necessarily make bad noise. The spectrum will have discrete lines at
multiples of Fclk/Table_len, which is nasty, and the max/min noise
range will be badly limited. It will also be visually periodic, not
too impressive. Dithering the DDS clock helps a little but has
problems of its own.

So we'll probably use a tapped long-pattern pseudorandom shift
register (64 or 96 bits maybe) and post-scramble to zap bit
crosscorrelations; XOR gates are free. That gives us random 16-bit
numbers with flat probability distribution. If we digitally lowpass
filter that, we'll get bandlimited Gaussian noise. If we clock that
whole system from the DDS synthesizer, we can set the noise bandwidth
3db point anywhere we like it, mHz to MHz, without affecting RMS
amplitude, which is pretty cool.

Our problem now is to squeeze 8 such noise generators into a Spartan3
FPGA, most of whose multipliers have already been used in the DDS and
modulators. The filters look like the tricky part, but I have an Evil
Scheme for them.

John

Sounds like a work around infringement of US6732128...

Actually, we considered loading the waveform table with random values
and wobulating the dds phase accumulator input to select table entries
in a non-trivial pattern. That was one of our many wild ideas in the
last week. It turns out to put some adders in a time-critical path
(all this stuff runs at 128 MHz) and got complex anyhow, so we decided
(as of this afternoon) to ignore the arb memory and generate the noise
off to the side, with a pseudo-random shift register and some hashing.
We still need to digitally lowpass filter the data to make it Gaussian
and define its bandwidth, but that can't be protected by a patent.

All this is bring us back to the Signals and Systems stuff we studied
a long time ago, but the math is seriously opaque here. I think we'll
justify buying a new spectrum analyzer to check how the final thing
really works. Anybody got a suggestion for a nice one? Several people
are making portable ones that look like tablet PCs with color LCDs, in
the 1-3 GHz range, under $10K maybe. Any comments?

John
 
J

joseph2k

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
AoE, p 655, first line on the 2nd column. You might also google
"central limit theorem."

Are you yet another nym for MassiveProng?

John
No, John. Mr. Monett easily predates MassivelyWrong. Please do not lump
him in with the the auktards.
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^!!!!



No, John. Mr. Monett easily predates MassivelyWrong. Please do not lump
him in with the the auktards.

Well, he did tell me that what we'd been working on all week was
totally wrong, and that I should scan and send him a chapter from
Win's book, and hunt down links for him. All without bothering to
first check to see if he was right. Under those circumstances, I have
a legal right to be a little crabby.

John
 
J

joseph2k

Jan 1, 1970
0
John said:
Well, he did tell me that what we'd been working on all week was
totally wrong, and that I should scan and send him a chapter from
Win's book, and hunt down links for him. All without bothering to
first check to see if he was right. Under those circumstances, I have
a legal right to be a little crabby.

John
OK. I am crabby all the time. I am trying to out crabby Lucy.
 
V

Vladimir Vassilevsky

Jan 1, 1970
0
Mike Monett said:
Untrue.

I did do a google search to check on your claim. There was utterly
and absolutely no confirmation available.

The Central Limit Theorem.
I finally got a copy of AoE, 2nd edition. Page 655 does indeed talk
about low-pass filtering a PRBS pattern to generate pseudo-Gaussian
noise. There is no derivation offered, no proof, and no links for
reference.

Not very difficult to derive it.
The parts I do recall from AoE is the filtering works only up to
about 0.1% of the main clock frequency. This means you have to
generate a 1GHz PRBS pattern to get Gaussian noise up to 1MHz. That
is a tremendous waste.

It depends on how well do you want to match the Gaussian distribution. If I
am not mistaken in my coarse estimates, somewhat 1/30 of the initial
bandwidth should give a reasonably accurate approximation (better then 1%
RMS).
Any professional Gaussian noise source must pass rigorous proof that
it is truly Gaussian.

Truly Gaussian source must have infinite peak power.
If you intend to sell high-value Gaussian noise generators to your
aerospace customers, you need something a bit more substantial than
a vague reference in AoE.

The hypocrisy and bs will work as usual.

Vladimir Vassilevsky
DSP and Mixed Signal Consultant
www.abvolt.com
 
J

John Larkin

Jan 1, 1970
0
The Central Limit Theorem.


Not very difficult to derive it.


It depends on how well do you want to match the Gaussian distribution. If I
am not mistaken in my coarse estimates, somewhat 1/30 of the initial
bandwidth should give a reasonably accurate approximation (better then 1%
RMS).

The generator on page 662 of AoE uses a FIR filter with a cutoff of
about 1/20 of the clock rate. But he's starting with a 1-bit stream,
which has a dual-impulse PD, about as bad as it gets. My 16-bit random
numbers start with a flat PD, which gives me a serious leg up. Summing
even six samples will result in a pretty good Gaussian distribution.

The real problem isn't to get a decent Gaussian probability
distribution; that's easy. The hard part is to get the spectrum right,
and not fry the FPGA in the process.
Truly Gaussian source must have infinite peak power.

If you sum a finite number of samples, the PD falls to zero on the
tails, instead of trailing off to infinity. That allows you to get a
reasonable amount of RMS signal through your amplifier stages. If you
get crazy and try to generate a true normal distribution, the
amplifier *will* clip, and the resulting distribution will be a lot
worse.

I note here, for any individuals that didn't know it already, that
lowpass filtering involves summing.

John
 
V

Vladimir Vassilevsky

Jan 1, 1970
0
John Larkin wrote:

The generator on page 662 of AoE uses a FIR filter with a cutoff of
about 1/20 of the clock rate. But he's starting with a 1-bit stream,
which has a dual-impulse PD, about as bad as it gets.

AoE is a basic cookbook for amateurs and beginners. The recipes from
there are fairly good, but may not be absolutely best for all occasions.
And as every cookbook, AoE doesn't go into the depth.
My 16-bit random
numbers start with a flat PD, which gives me a serious leg up. Summing
even six samples will result in a pretty good Gaussian distribution.

That makes a lot of sense. For the Gaussian generators of this type, the
rule of thumb is 12 samples.
The real problem isn't to get a decent Gaussian probability
distribution; that's easy. The hard part is to get the spectrum right,
and not fry the FPGA in the process.

It should not be a problem to generate a reasonably flat gaussian noise
in a band by the use of FIR filter.

I note here, for any individuals that didn't know it already, that
lowpass filtering involves summing.

I note here, for those who don't know, that any filtering involves some
sort of summing, and the lowpass filtering is not conceptually different
from bandpass or highpass.



Vladimir Vassilevsky

DSP and Mixed Signal Design Consultant

http://www.abvolt.com
 
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